Back to HTML Index CHAPTER 5A: HABITATS AND LIVING RESOURCES

The waters off the Pacific coast are among the richest in biological diversity, or biodiversity, in United States coastal waters. California's living marine resources depend on the health of the entire ocean ecosystem to support thousands of flora and fauna species. This ecosystem includes habitats located within inland, enclosed, nearshore, and offshore waters. A variety of ocean and coastal industries, including commercial fishing, mariculture, biotechnology, tourism, and recreation, depend on the maintenance and enhancement of ocean resources located off the California coast. The State's ocean resources, and the economic base they support, will benefit substantially from the development of a comprehensive program to sustain California's ocean ecosystem into the 21st century and beyond.

This chapter addresses ocean ecosystem habitats and living resources from three perspectives:

Ocean Ecosystem Management: developing methods to manage California's entire ocean ecosystem, and the habitats that support this ecosystem.

Ocean and Coastal Managed Areas: evaluating the ability of California's complex system of ocean and coastal managed areas (such as reserves, refuges, and underwater parks) to achieve a healthy and productive ocean ecosystem.

Fishery Resources: developing a comprehensive plan to maintain sustainable ocean and coastal fishery stocks off the California coast.



BACKGROUND

Responsibility for protecting California's ocean and coastal habitats and living resources is delegated among a variety of State agencies pursuant to various sections of California code. For example, the Fish and Game Code requires the California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) to protect, maintain and enhance populations and habitats of marine plants, invertebrates, fish, mammals, and birds, and to support the multiple use of these resources. The California Coastal Act requires the California Coastal Commission to apply a broad range of ocean and coastal resource protection policies to development proposals within the coastal zone. The State Water Resources Control and Regional Water Quality Control Boards are required by State and federal law to maintain the integrity of the State's waters. Other State agencies, in addition to the ones identified here, are involved in ocean and coastal habitat management. State agency responsibilities are presented in more detail in the chapter titled, "Ocean Jurisdiction and Management" and Appendix B.

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At the federal level, ocean and coastal resource management roles have also been delegated to several agencies. For instance, wildlife management responsibilities are divided between the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). The NMFS has major responsibilities for fisheries and marine mammal management, while sea otters and
some federal fish hatcheries remain within the jurisdiction of the USFWS. Other federal agencies, such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Coast Guard, Minerals Management Service, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), have ocean management responsibilities which vary, depending on the type and location of the resource or activity. Summaries of the role federal agencies play in managing and protecting ocean and coastal habitats are located in the chapter titled, "Ocean Jurisdiction and Management" and Appendix C.

Many State and federal agencies are responsible for implementing issue-specific (and sometimes single-purpose) provisions relating to ocean and coastal habitats and living marine resources. This issue-specific approach occurs because legislation has often been produced incrementally to address immediate technical problems. The result is management efforts based on geography, species type, or source of environmental impact, rather than the development of broader policy objectives. However, ocean species and the ecosystem that supports them do not adhere to political boundaries; therefore, it makes little sense to limit management efforts in such a fashion. Future ocean management should focus on ecosystem management principles, key to which is recognizing the importance and interdependence of all species. Emphasis is placed on protecting and managing the habitats necessary to support California's living resources, rather than focusing on protecting a specific species or adhering to rigid jurisdictional boundaries. This requires building partnerships between government agencies at all levels, members of the public, and the private sector. Both the State of California and federal government are seeking to manage natural resources on an ecosystem basis. This will require integrating existing, narrowly-focused jurisdictions to address the larger needs of California's ocean ecosystem.


ISSUE ANALYSIS

Ocean Ecosystem Management

A variety of programs incorporate ecosystem approaches to ocean resource management. Several ongoing efforts provide examples of such approaches.

Protecting Biological Diversity. The California Biodiversity Council (Biodiversity Council) is an interagency organization of federal, State, and local government agencies, and the University of California. The Biodiversity Council facilitates cooperation in resource management and conservation planning efforts to promote the protection of biological diversity in California. The Biodiversity Council has supported coordination of many activities, including watershed and stream restoration projects, management plans to reduce soil erosion and fire hazards, and coastal sage scrub habitat protection efforts in Southern California. Although the initial geographic focus is within the inland watershed zone, the Biodiversity Council efforts benefit both inland and ocean resources.

The Biodiversity Council also serves as a forum to support the California Environmental Resources Evaluation System (CERES) located within the Resources Agency. The CERES makes accessible information about California's natural resources through computerized "electronic highways." The CERES is providing computer access to an information library of California's vegetation, wildlife, 
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marine resources, and land use data by bioregion, which will assist in the management of California's entire ocean ecosystem.

Reducing Polluted Runoff. The California Coastal Commission and State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) are jointly preparing a plan for the State of California to reduce polluted runoff impacts (nonpoint source pollution) pursuant to Section 6217 of the federal Coastal Zone Management Act. Another major interagency effort, coordinated by the NOAA, is underway to create a regional water quality management plan for the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. The NOAA is providing technical support to implement a process known as integrated coastal management, in which federal, State, and local agencies, local industries, and public interest groups develop a consensus-based management plan.

These efforts both use ecosystem management principles by evaluating entire watersheds located within multiple jurisdictions and by including major interested parties in the planning process. The nonpoint source process is discussed in more detail in the chapter titled "Water Quality," while the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary water quality process is described in more detail in the chapter titled "Ocean Jurisdiction and Management."

Protecting Wetlands and Subtidal Resources. Governor Wilson issued an Executive Order in 1993 which mandates a new policy and approach to managing California's wetlands (Executive Order W-59-93). The goal of the California Wetlands Conservation Policy is to achieve a long-term increase in wetlands acreage, functions, and values in California. The policy recognizes the critical role that wetlands play in California's ocean ecosystem and is geared toward building the partnerships necessary to protect these resources.

The Executive Order is being implemented through programs and policies designed to meet three primary objectives:

1. To ensure no overall net loss and long-term net gain in the quantity, quality, and permanence of wetlands acreage and values in California in a manner that fosters creativity, stewardship, and respect for private property.

2. To reduce procedural complexity in the administration of State and federal wetlands conservation programs.

3. To encourage partnerships to make restoration, landowner incentive programs, and cooperative planning efforts the primary focus of wetlands conservation.

Port Development and Resource Protection. A process known as the Long Term Management Strategy (LTMS) is being used in San Francisco Bay to bring together key government, non-profit, and private sector interests to develop a 50-year strategy to help meet the development needs of San Francisco Bay ports in an environmentally sound manner. This process has resulted in a consensus regarding the disposal of dredge spoils. The consensus involves a combination of methods to safely dispose of dredge spoils, including such options as deep ocean disposal, land disposal, and using the spoils to create shallow wetland and subtidal habitat. The LTMS is described in more detail in the chapter titled "Ports and Harbors." 
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Coordination of Ecosystem Approaches

Ecosystem planning approaches are producing positive results for ocean resource management and protection. It will be important to coordinate these efforts, to expand them where necessary, and to determine where additional programs should be initiated. Although ecosystem management efforts can be time-consuming to implement, the long-term benefit will be consensus-based management approaches that will last. The principles of ecosystem management can be applied to most of the issues described in the following chapters.

Ocean and Coastal Managed Areas

The State of California and federal government have created a complex series of ocean and coastal reserves, refuges, sanctuaries, and other designated management areas to protect resources along the coast and within both State and federal waters. These designations result from a mixture of legislative and administrative actions intended to protect, conserve, or otherwise manage a variety of unique habitats while balancing such ocean uses as fishing, recreation, and research. These areas did not result from a comprehensive plan to manage California's ocean resources, but instead were created over the years through case-by-case actions usually intended to address specific management objectives.

This system of ocean and coastal managed areas can be confusing because there is frequently little difference between allowable uses in different categories. For instance, when comparing marine refuges and reserves, a DFG report states, "The net effect of these . . . laws and regulations is that we now have only minor differences between the regulations governing the use of refuges and reserves established by the Legislature and the Fish and Game Commission" (DFG, 1989). This conclusion was also voiced in public comments received during the development of this Agenda.

Confusion about different requirements, restrictions, or boundaries of the State's ocean and coastal managed areas is compounded by that fact that there is no single reference document which includes basic information about the different components of the system. Additionally, many State and federal agencies report inadequate resources for properly enforcing restrictions within designated areas. Unfortunately, no comprehensive interagency evaluation of the designations and management of this system has ever been conducted. Re-evaluating and altering the existing system and goals could help improve efficiency and allow personnel to focus on implementing the most important laws and regulations governing these areas.

The various categories of federal, State, and locally managed areas are summarized below. In addition, Appendices E and F describe the intent of each State and federal designation and list the agencies that promulgate, implement, or enforce regulations within them. Ocean and coastal managed areas are also displayed on maps in Appendix H to illustrate the extensive system currently in place. The categories include managed areas located offshore and within coastal lands located along the shoreline. Land designations are included because they have a substantial impact on the protection, conservation, and management of California's ocean resources.

California Ocean and Coastal Managed Areas. California has several ocean and coastal management designations, and new categories continue to be proposed.

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Areas of Special Biological Significance are designated in State tidelands to limit or prohibit discharges in their general proximity. These areas are designated by the SWRCB under the Water Quality Control Plan for Ocean Waters of California.

The Coastal Sanctuary prohibits oil and gas leasing within all State tidelands and is administered by the State Lands Commission.

The Marine Resources Protection Act of 1990 prohibits uses other than marine research in four ecological reserves designated by the Fish and Game Commission.

The Offshore Rocks and Pinnacles Sanctuary protects thousands of offshore reefs, rocks and small islands along the California coast. Originally a federal program started in 1930, management of the Sanctuary has been delegated to the DFG for 50 years pursuant to a 1983 Memorandum of Understanding between the State and federal government.

State Estuaries have been designated at Morro Bay and San Diego Bay in recognition of the resource values of these sites and to facilitate the development of water quality management programs for these areas. A management plan for Morro Bay and its watershed will be developed and submitted to the State Legislature on or before July 1, 1997.

State Refuges are designated at over 50 sites along the California coast. The DFG manages these areas and is authorized to designate two kinds of reserves. The State Legislature may designate reserves under five other categories. Additionally, both the Legislature and Fish and Game Commission periodically amend individual reserve uses and boundaries.

State Seashores, Beaches, and Reserves (Underwater Areas) are designated to provide recreational opportunities and resource protection. These areas are managed by the Department of Parks and Recreation.

Federal Ocean and Coastal Managed Areas. The federal government has designated ocean and coastal managed areas along the California coast in the following categories:

A Federal Ecological Preserve was designated in the Santa Barbara Channel, after the 1969 oil spill on Unocal's Platform A, which withdrew a portion of the outer continental shelf from mineral leasing and reserves it for scientific, recreational, or other related uses.

National Estuaries are designated to protect and improve water quality and enhance the living resources of nationally significant estuaries and bays threatened by pollution, development, or overuse. The program is administered by the USEPA under the Clean Water Act.

National Estuarine Research Reserves are designated to preserve or restore estuarine areas of coastal waters affected by tidal flows. Administered by the NOAA, the program promotes and coordinates estuarine research, provides grants, and creates guidelines for research projects.

National Marine Sanctuaries are designated to maintain discrete areas of special national significance to protect ocean resources while providing multiple uses. Oil and gas leasing is not

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permitted within any of the national marine sanctuaries located off the California coast. The program is administered by the NOAA.

National Parks are designated to conserve scenery, national and historic objects, and wildlife. Parks such as the Channel Islands National Park or the Redwood National Park include ocean and coastal resources of national significance, and are administered by the National Park Service.

National Seashores are designated to preserve the undeveloped sections of the United States seashore for the enjoyment of the public. The program is administered by the National Park Service.


National Wildlife Refuges are designated to protect and conserve fish, wildlife, and waterfowl production areas. The USFWS manages these areas.


Local Government Ocean and Coastal Managed Areas. Local governments play an important role in managing ocean and coastal managed areas along the coast. Some areas are directly managed by local governments, such as the Seal Rock Reserve (City of San Diego), the Bolinas Lagoon Nature Preserve (Marin County), and the Big Lagoon County Park (Humboldt County). In other coastal areas, local governments frequently have agreements with the State or federal government to help manage ocean or coastal areas.

Fishery Stocks

Managing California's ocean and coastal fishery stocks at sustainable levels is complex and depends on such things as accurately assessing wild stocks and judging the impacts that multiple harvesters have on the resource. Fishery stock estimates are determined either through catch information reported by fishermen or through independent research. Independent research is generally cost-prohibitive for State agencies and, therefore, usually unavailable for assessing fishery stocks. However, it is clear that while some stocks are substantially stressed, as evidenced by severe fishery declines, others are sustainably harvested, as evidenced by relatively consistent landings over time. Determining and managing the causes of fishery stock declines is challenging, involving analysis of habitat modifications, weather conditions, fishing practices, and water quality conditions. In addition, management is even more challenging given that California's fishing industry ranks fourth in the nation in total seafood landed and Californian's consume more seafood per capita than the national average (California Seafood Council, 1991). This complexity requires that management of fishery stocks be addressed in a comprehensive manner to be effective.

Fisheries management and allocation issues are addressed by the DFG, Fish and Game Commission (FGC), California Legislature, and U.S. Department of Commerce's Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC). The DFG is mandated to balance the protection of marine resources with the needs of the commercial and recreational fishing industries to maximize their long-term fishery yields. The FGC has the authority to set policy for sport fisheries and some commercial fisheries, such as anchovy, mackerel, herring and kelp harvesting. Policy issues not determined by the FGC are addressed through the enactment of new legislation. As a regional body funded through the Department of Commerce, the PFMC primarily develops, monitors, and revises management plans for fisheries between 3 and 200 miles of the U.S. coast. 
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Fishery Stocks and Harvesting Rates. The DFG relies primarily on landings data from the fishing fleet to assess fishery populations for management purposes. Landings and catch-per-unit effort data over the past half century indicates that many populations of fish and shellfish species continue to annually decline and/or widely fluctuate. Important stocks of concern include abalone, salmon, albacore tuna, market crab, sharks, swordfish, and red sea urchin. Total pounds of all fish and shellfish landed in 1992 alone declined 18% over the previous year, although landings were up 5% in 1993. (Collins, pers. comm.). Reasons for declining harvest rates for some fish stocks are a combination of many factors, including:


Some caution is required when using landing data alone to estimate fluctuations. For instance, catch declines can reflect the decisions of fishermen or processors to shift to other fishing grounds or species and may not reflect actual declines in populations. A better use of catch data is catch per unit of effort (CPUE, usually in pounds/hour) to indicate fluctuations in fish or shellfish abundance. For example, sea urchin fishermen were instrumental in initiating the first restrictions on their fishery, yet current CPUE data indicates a continuing decline in Northern California sea urchin stocks. Although declines are occurring in some California fishery stocks, the DFG indicates that many others, such as California sardine, Pacific mackerel, California barracuda, and California halibut, have responded positively to "take" restrictions. For example, Pacific ocean shrimp landings in 1992 were higher than any landings over the past 41 years off California's coast. Other fisheries being managed at sustainable levels include the spiny lobster, squid, and the north coast Dungeness crab population. (Rao, pers. comm.).

Actions To Rebuild Fishery Stocks. A variety of efforts have been initiated to help rebuild fishery stocks and the habitats upon which they depend. For example, the DFG, California Department of Water Resources (DWR), and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, as well as other State and federal agencies, have ongoing habitat restoration and fishery protection programs within the Central Valley. Using funds provided by contractors with the State Water Project, the DWR and DFG have restored spawning gravel in areas of the Tuolumne and Merced rivers for the benefit of fall-run chinook salmon, exchanged water in Mill Creek (a tributary of the Sacramento River) to benefit spring-run chinook salmon, and placed over 100,000 cubic yards of spawning gravel into the upper Sacramento River near Redding for the benefit of all runs of salmon and steelhead. The DFG has completed hundreds of fish habitat restoration or enhancement projects for salmon, steelhead trout, American shad, and striped bass.

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In November 1993, the DFG released a document titled, "Restoring Central Valley Streams: A Plan for Action." This restoration plan encompasses all Central Valley waters accessible to anadromous fish, excluding the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta; documents that salmon and steelhead spawning habitat has been greatly reduced from approximately 6,000 miles that existed prior to the construction of dams to less than 300 miles that exists today; and provides a set of priorities to begin improving these remaining habitats. It is estimated that the actions recommended for implementation will cost approximately $350 million. The DFG, with various partners, has begun implementing some of the major projects recommended, including: 1) permanent structural temperature control devices at Shasta and Whiskey Town dams and other measures to control temperatures in the upper Sacramento River, 2) measures to minimize anadromous fish passage problems at the Red Bluff Diversion Dam, and 3) developing a plan to control effluent from the Iron Mountain Mine Superfund site until a Basin Plan is completed for the area. Additional efforts are also being pursued to re-establish spawning habitat in areas where anadromous fish habitat previously existed.

On the north coast, the DFG has approved and supervised the expenditure of $26 million to implement over 1,200 individual habitat restoration projects since 1981. These projects have included stream bank protection, stabilization, and revegetation, as well as installation of structures to provide cover, scour hold, and rearing pools, and removing barriers to upstream migration. A variety of other planning processes are in progress such as the development of a water quality protection plan for the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary which is developing strategies for watershed management reaching far into the Salinas Valley.

At the federal level, the 1992 Central Valley Project Improvement Act (CVPIA) provides several possible approaches to remedy the decline of anadromous fish species. The CVPIA establishes federal goals for ensuring adequate stream water flows to protect all life stages of anadromous fish. It also requires programs to mitigate for fishery impacts resulting from water pumping facilities, including such specific measures as installing temperature control devices at dam structures and increasing the availability of spawning gravel.

Other actions to rebuild California's fishery stocks include limiting user group access to fisheries and instituting take restrictions, specifying acceptable harvesting methods and gear types, rebuilding threatened wetland and subtidal habitats, creating artificial biomass producing reefs, and supplementing populations through hatcheries.

Economic Hardships. North Coast fishing communities have been affected by severe declines in salmon populations in recent years. Governor Wilson responded to the hardships faced by these communities by declaring a State of Emergency on May 20, 1994. This declaration was intended to make financial resources available to families and small businesses that were hard-hit by salmon declines. A Federal Disaster declaration was then issued by the President pursuant to a request by California, Oregon, and Washington. The declaration is providing assistance to these West Coast communities through Small Business Administration loans, Disaster Unemployment Assistance, Department of Commerce funding assistance for habitat restoration projects, and a Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission sponsored data collection program.

California's Aquaculture Industry. Aquaculture is the practice of culturing, growing, and harvesting an aquatic species in a controlled setting. As an emerging California industry, 

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aquaculture holds the potential to supplement the growing demand for fresh seafood and aquatic products, as well as assist with re-stocking programs. California has approximately 400 registered aquaculturists who raise products within intensive systems (enclosed, or on land). Approximately 25% of registered aquaculturists contribute between $45-50 million to the California economy, with catfish, oysters, and trout the top producing species. Other marine species include abalone, striped bass, sturgeon, mussels, scallops and clams. (Hulbrock, pers. comm.).

Stocking of ocean and coastal environments with cultured fish has shown some success with salmon, as well as other species with small pilot projects in other states. California is currently involved in a pilot program to introduce white seabass in Southern California nearshore ocean waters. Other potential applications could include such species as abalone, sea urchin, sturgeon, and halibut. However, important questions regarding ecosystem effects, carrying capacities, effects on wild stocks, and species interactions should be investigated before large-scale stock rebuilding projects for new species are undertaken.


FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Finding

California's ocean ecosystem supports a wide assemblage of ocean and coastal life that includes plants, invertebrates, fish, seabirds, and mammals. The productivity of this ecosystem is, and will continue to be, critical to sustaining important ocean-dependent industries including commercial and recreational fishing industries, and the State's substantial tourism industry.

Recommendation A-1.
Ecosystem management strategies, developed in consultation with the California Biodiversity Council, should be applied for purposes of sustaining ocean resources. To be effective, this ecosystem approach must address the interdependence between the inland watershed, enclosed waters, nearshore ocean, and offshore ocean resource zones which comprise California's ocean ecosystem and the complex measures necessary to maintain or enhance habitats within those zones.

Finding

The array of California's ocean and coastal managed area designations is complex and often confusing. This complexity and confusion poses questions as to the effectiveness and enforceability of designations meant to safeguard the State's ocean and coastal biodiversity and to promote public use and enjoyment of these resources. The existing categories of State ocean and coastal managed areas along the coast and in State tidelands have generally evolved on a case-by-case basis through legislative and administrative actions and by public referendum. The designations have not necessarily conformed to any plan designed to establish these managed areas in the most effective way or in the most representative or unique areas of the ocean and coastal environment.

Recommendation A-2.
Produce a single source document which includes maps of existing ocean and coastal managed areas in California (for example, parks,


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sanctuaries, reserves, refuges, seashores, and areas of special biological significance) with clearly stated explanations of rules, regulations, and allowed uses within each designation. The public has expressed confusion over the complexity of the existing ocean and coastal managed area designations. A single source document, accessible through the California Environmental Resources Evaluation System, would improve understanding of existing managed areas.

Recommendation A-3.
Develop a more effective and less complicated statewide system of ocean and coastal managed areas. A comprehensive program is needed, with clear criteria for creating, administering, and enforcing management measures in these specially designated areas.

Finding

Many of California's ocean and coastal fishery stocks are currently reduced and other stocks are likely to face similar declines in the near future without a comprehensive plan to actively counter these declines. The factors contributing to declines are complex and include the loss of inland and coastal spawning habitat, water pollution, natural events like drought and El Niño, and overfishing. Watersheds and their inland and coastal streams have been adversely affected by increased urbanization, agricultural practices, forestry operations, modification of waterways, and restricted water flows. The status of several fish populations is difficult to assess due to the cost and consequent lack of monitoring and assessment information upon which to base sound management decisions.

Recommendation A-4.
Establish a comprehensive long-term plan for the sustainable management of California's ocean and coastal fishery stocks, with an emphasis on re-building stocks in decline. The plan should be developed in close cooperation with fishery interests and other interested parties, and should include:

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Recommendation A-5.
Establish a comprehensive long-term plan for California aquaculture development, identifying opportunities and constraints for this industry which can provide an alternative source of certain seafood products. The plan should consider:









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