The travel industry has become the "largest business on earth" and is likely to remain so well into the future, with demand for travel exhibiting greater variation than ever before (Miller 1991). The California Trade and Commerce Agency’s Division of Tourism (CalTour) estimates that the travel industry and associated recreation in California generates approximately $55.2 billion annually (6.5% of the gross state product) and supports almost 700,000 jobs statewide, making California first in the nation for travel earnings, domestic visitors and overseas visitors.

For the purposes of this Agenda, consistent with research methodology used by other State agencies, tourism is defined as leisure vacation travel requiring transit over 50 miles or an overnight stay. Recreation is defined as leisure activities in which participants travel less than 50 miles and do not require an overnight stay. Using these definitions, the California Research Bureau prepared an economic analysis in support of this Agenda which determined that ocean and coastal tourism contributed $9.9 billion to the State’s economy in 1992, making it the largest component of the seven ocean-dependent industries studied (Appendix B; see Chapter 2 for a summary). In 1994, the CalTour estimates that 32 million resident trips and 7 million non-resident trips (not including international visitors) were made to visit California beach or waterfront areas by traveling more than 50 miles, with coastal cities being a strong attraction for out-of-state visitors.

Ocean and coastal tourism activities in California offer visitors a broad range of opportunities that vary from visits to resorts, bed and breakfast inns, hotels, and campgrounds to more adventurous activities such as coastal cruises, wind surfing, deep sea fishing, backpacking, and hang gliding. While visiting ocean and coastal areas, tourists will often engage in recreational activities, although a majority of recreational users are local residents. Overall, ocean and coastal activities play an important role in recreation in California. In fact, based on number of visitors in 1991, four out of the State’s top ten recreational attractions were ocean or coastal in nature (shown in bold face type below, DPR 1994).

A survey by the California Department of Parks and Recreation concluded that in 1991 almost 70% of Californians had participated in beach activities an average of 21 days, surpassed in participants only by visiting museums/historic sites and recreational walking. They also found that 25% of Californians had participated in saltwater fishing an average of 15 days each. Not only is there an increasing number of traditional ocean and coastal recreation enthusiasts, but also a surge in the types of activities in which people can participate.

The rapid increase in ocean and coastal recreation activities and participants in the last 40 years has created a highly segmented but dynamic industry. Advances in equipment technology have allowed the development of lightweight, durable and weather-resistant materials, and have also been a primary factor in new recreational activities. The 1950's and 60's included a revolution in ocean recreation as the sports of surfing and scuba diving emerged. Activities such as wind surfing and the use of personal watercraft (sometimes referred to as "thrill craft") have dramatically increased in the past 20 years. As the public seeks new ways to enjoy the ocean, sports such as kayaking and open water rowing have been adapted for use in bays, estuaries, and the open ocean. Long enjoyed activities, such as sport fishing, snorkeling, sailing, motor boating and body surfing also continue with increasing numbers of participants along the California coast.

California’s ocean and coastal recreational resources are managed or governed by a complex array of local, State and federal agencies, private industry and non-profit organizations. Some of the public agencies include: local public works departments; local or regional parks and recreation departments; the California Coastal Commission and State departments of Parks and Recreation, Fish and Game, and Boating and Waterways; and the U.S. Coast Guard, National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and National Marine Fisheries Service. Private industry and non-profit organizations manage recreational resources such as aquariums, bird observatories, habitat refuges, beach accessways, and golf courses.

California's reputation as a major coastal vacation and recreation center draws millions of people each year. The majority of these visitors are residents, but almost 20% are interstate or international (D.K. Shifflet & Associates 1994). In addition, the appeal of the coastal lifestyle has resulted in a rapidly increasing coastal population, with over 80% of California’s population residing within 30 miles of the coast (Griggs 1991).

The major influx of tourism and recreational activities along the California coast, coupled with new and innovative technology in ocean and coastal recreation equipment, has created substantial business opportunities. Simultaneously it has increased the risk that ocean and coastal resources may be overused, degraded, and ultimately made unattractive to the very users that serve as a market for those businesses. Increasing congestion and overcrowded conditions at popular ocean or coastal destinations also means a growing number of user conflicts. Tourism and recreation issues in the coastal zone are receiving increased attention as these multiple-use and congestion conflicts arise more frequently.

Tourism and recreation can have both beneficial and detrimental effects on the ocean ecosystem. Benefits can include: conservation of natural resources as a community recognizes the economic returns from tourism and recreation; growing recognition of the importance of quality environments by government and the public and the subsequent designation of managed and protected areas; and increased environmental consciousness that individuals gain through meaningful encounters with nature. Detrimental effects upon the ocean ecosystem can include: disturbances to upland, nearshore, and ocean environments; habitat degradation from constructing facilities; runoff from land clearing activities, increased riverine and nearshore turbidity; accidental or intentional discharges of oils, fuels and other effluents; careless disposal of trash and debris; and beach erosion from development that restricts sand flow to and along the coast.

Increased ocean and coastal tourism and recreational activities have also resulted in a number of other issues and concerns. As the visitor carrying capacity is exceeded at some popular sites the demand increases for new parks, facilities and shoreline access. Additional education and docent programs are needed to teach a growing number of visitors how to minimize their impact on the marine environment. Public water safety and training programs must keep pace with an increasing variety of water-related activities, and conflicts between various user groups or between users and wildlife appear to be rising. In short, the growing use and enjoyment of California’s ocean and coastal resources requires greater or new management and enforcement activities to address these increasing demands. Some of the issues are described in more detail below.

Carrying Capacity of Recreational Sites. Tourism and recreation experiences can be degraded if the visitor carrying capacity of a destination is exceeded. This capacity must be managed to avoid unacceptable levels of resource degradation, traffic congestion, parking and public transportation problems, deteriorating facilities, noise, trash and debris, safety concerns (lifeguard, police, fire), and user conflicts. Damage to recreational resources can often be attributed to the recreational users themselves, much of which can and has been avoided by limiting use at sensitive sites, educating the public on ways to avoid damaging marine resources, and providing highly visible enforcement.

Conflicts Between Humans and Marine Species. The public is fascinated with observing the abundant living marine resources that exist along or offshore the California coastline, such as sea lions, whales, and shore birds. However, this fascination sometimes leads to visitation that can be harmful to these species or the public. For instance, a breeding colony of elephant seals has been established in the coves south of Piedras Blancas in northern San Luis Obispo County, one of the few such breeding colonies on the entire mainland coast of California. This elephant seal population is increasing dramatically. The first year at Piedras Blancas the colony experienced just a few births, the second year 60, the third year 260, and by the fourth year over 600 pups were born.

Within sight of State Highway 1, the colony has attracted an unprecedented number of tourists, creating several hazards: excessive traffic along the two lane highway, illegal parking which can reduce the highway to a single lane, tourists crossing over barbed wire and private property to reach the colony, tourists on the beach who are unprepared to fend off advances from 3,000 pound marine mammals, and elephant seals being chased, poked with sticks, or otherwise harassed. Federal, State, and local agencies, private property owners, and the public are working to develop a program for eliminating illegal parking and road hazards, providing controlled public access, and protecting and managing this unique resource. If successful, this effort may provide an opportunity for a safe yet spectacular eco-tourism attraction along the Northern San Luis Obispo County coastline.

Conflicts Between Recreational Users and Increasing Safety Concerns. Opportunities for ocean and coastal recreation are becoming increasingly diverse. Many forms of recreation, if not properly managed, can create conflicts between users. Most notable are conflicts between noisy and quiet or relatively safe and higher risk forms of recreation, such as the combination of bird watching and personal watercraft use. As tourism and recreation increase, conflicts between users appears to be on the rise, although few statistics are available to verify these conflicts.

There are many impacts from tourism and recreational activities, and the extent to which these are considered acceptable differs between people and communities. Strategies for addressing adverse impacts and conflicts can often be handled through agreements reached between individual parties. Other solutions may involve local management and use restrictions or rules regulating marine managed areas. For example, surfing has been restricted for years on popular beaches during peak use times to minimize injury to swimmers. This type of restriction has been implemented on a case-by-case basis and is usually enforced by local parks and recreation or beach departments. Other conflict and safety issues present greater than local significance that may need to be addressed at the State or federal level. Examples of these issues include personal watercraft use, shark chumming, and conflicts that sometimes arise as a result of the public knowingly or unknowingly damaging unique ocean and coastal species or their habitats. Additional educational programs will be needed, as well as potentially new or different laws and regulatory regimes. Natural and social scientists can assist managers by conducting research to determine if ocean and coastal resources are being managed in a way that minimizes environmental and social impacts of tourism and recreation.

Maintaining and enhancing California's ocean ecosystem is critically important for those who wish to swim, surf, sail, or fish in clean and productive ocean or coastal waters. Federal, State, and local programs which protect ocean and coastal resources play an important role in maintaining the California coast as a major visitor destination. Information is needed by government about economics, environmental impacts, and patterns of resource use for effective ocean and coastal policy formulation. This is most important when considering management of specific sites where costs and benefits to the local or regional community must be weighed.

Marine Managed or Protected Areas. One way to accommodate different users and avoid resource conflict in areas where coastal populations or visitors are on the rise is to establish special managed or protected areas. The result is planning for different uses and degrees of use to accommodate ecological and social concerns. When these areas are established based on good information about natural processes, user needs, and visitor carrying capacities, the ecosystem can be kept intact and productive while also meeting the needs of local communities, tourists, recreational users, scientists, and industry. Controlled tourism and recreation can be sustainable, providing many economic and social benefits.

Government Initiatives. California has a variety of programs and managed areas intended to protect and enhance ocean and coastal resources, while others are combined with or specifically designed to develop facilities for supporting California's coastal recreation and tourism. The California Coastal Act was crafted by the legislature to protect and enhance marine and coastal resources while also protecting and providing additional recreational opportunities, public access, and visitor-serving facilities along the shoreline. These principals must be incorporated in the local coastal programs developed by local governments along the California coast. Through implementation of the Coastal Act, the Coastal Commission and local governments have substantially increased access to the coastline. The Coastal Commission has also developed initiatives such as the Adopt-A-Beach Program, CoastWeeks, and Coastal Clean-Up Day which provide interesting and informative recreational opportunities that encourage environmentally sound enjoyment of ocean and coastal resources.

The California Department of Parks and Recreation (DPR) is responsible for managing 264 miles of ocean frontage, or about 24 percent of the California coastline, serving more than 43 million visitors each year. The DPR also manages 11 marine underwater areas encompassing almost 10,000 acres. The DPR enhances the health, inspiration and education of the people of California by protecting the State’s extraordinary biological diversity, preserving valued cultural and natural resources, and creating opportunities for high-quality and educational outdoor recreation. The California Department of Fish and Game enhances tourism experiences through resource stewardship, educational programs, and enforcing the State's wildlife protection laws, thus maintaining these resources for public enjoyment. The Coastal Conservancy acquires land for State and regional parks, provides funding for the construction of numerous trails, paths, foot bridges and stairways to the ocean, and provides funding to restore tourist-oriented facilities, including major ocean piers, through its urban waterfront program. Additionally, the Coastal Conservancy's resource enhancement, restoration and agricultural preservation programs help to ensure that scenic areas remain undeveloped and wildlife habitats are protected and restored.

Federal programs establishing National Marine Sanctuaries, National Estuarine Research Reserves, and National Recreational Areas conserve the quality of California's ocean resources, helping to maintain the ocean ecosystem and, in turn, stimulate tourism and recreation. Federal agencies such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency have specific programs for protecting and managing ocean resources. These programs are described in more detail in other chapters and Appendix D.

Regional and local governments also play a role in managing ocean and coastal resources for tourism and recreational experiences along California’s 1,100 mile coastline. A majority of outdoor recreation activities on public land occur in park or recreation areas operated by cities, counties and special districts (DPR 1994), although that portion is probably less if referring only to coastal sites (Martin, pers. comm.). Local governments frequently provide a wide range of services at these sites, including life guards, peace officers, and visitor support facilities.

The natural beauty of the California coast and integrity of California's fish and wildlife populations protected by local, state or federal programs are immense draws for both tourists and residents. The substantial contribution of ocean-dependent tourism and recreation to the State economy supports the concept that responsible environmental management is an investment in resource protection as well as a healthy economy.

Evaluating and promoting tourism and recreation in California is complicated by the fact that the industry is enormous and diverse, providing a wide range of services and products to both tourists and non-tourists. Measuring the degree to which businesses are tourism- or recreationally-dependent is therefore difficult. The CalTour has the mission of creating jobs and tax revenues by stimulating economic activity through increased travel and tourism expenditures. Using surveys to develop profiles of average visitors, the division determines the statewide economic benefits of tourism and also computes tourism revenues for each county in California. An annual report provides estimates of visitor travel patterns, also determined through an extensive survey. The CalTour estimates that tourism contributed $55.2 billion to California’s economy in 1995, the largest state tourism industry in the nation. Yet the State ranks 48th in per-capita spending on tourism promotion (Poimiroo, pers. comm.).

To more effectively market California as a travel destination, CalTour and other tourism leaders in California worked to enact the California Tourism Marketing Act (CTMA; Chapter 871, Stats.1995) which went into effect January 1, 1996. The CTMA establishes a process for creating an industry-wide marketing program funded through assessments levied on every California business that benefits from tourism. A referendum will be conducted within the industry in 1997 to determine the fate of the CTMA, which would raise approximately $25 million annually for promotion purposes. Combined with an annual State contribution of $7.3 million, the funds would finance the first public-private marketing partnership of its kind in the nation. Funds would be used to promote tourism to and within the State through advertising, publications, and participation in trade shows, with half the budget dedicated to attracting international visitors.

The CalTour does not have a program to specifically promote ocean and coastal tourism; most programs promoting ocean and coastal tourism are developed by local governments or the private sector. In response to information requests from local governments and state agencies about ocean and coastal tourism and recreation in California, the CalTour has added questions concerning these activities to its annual survey of California tourists.

In an effort to better promote tourism and recreation in California, the DPR worked with over 30 government and private industry representatives to establish the California Roundtable on Recreation, Parks and Tourism. Established in the summer of 1996, the Roundtable has defined its initial mission as coordinating and promoting public and private efforts to provide quality, sustainable outdoor recreation in California. Three-year goals are to promote and coordinate joint marketing forces, improve communication with the media and public, increase political support, develop an understanding of the public’s needs and expectations, and increase secure funding for operations, maintenance, capital outlay, and acquisitions. The Roundtable has established 6-month objectives for each of the three-year goals and will re-evaluate it’s mission and goals in one year. At the core of the Roundtable’s mission is the idea of "sustainable" development.

The concept of ecotourism dates back to 1965 when N.D. Hetzer promoted "ecological tourism" with four standards against which tourism activities should be measured:

1. minimum environmental impact;

2. minimum impact on, and maximum respect for, host cultures;

3. maximum economic benefits to host country’s grassroots; and

4. maximum recreational satisfaction to participating tourists.

Today ecotourism has many definitions and synonyms, including adventure tourism, nature-oriented or green tourism, responsible or ethical tourism, and socio-ecological tourism. Many agree, however, that the term is centered around the concept of "sustainable tourism" which was defined for discussion purposes at Globe '90, an international conference sponsored by the Canadian government in Vancouver in March 1990, as:

The concept of ecotourism -- the credo for which has become ‘Take nothing but pictures, leave nothing but your footprints’ -- is transforming many fundamental elements of the tourism industry. Diane Merlino (Editor, Travel and Tourism News) saw the ecotourism initiative really emerge in the 1970s as a reaction to the "negative consequences of tourism development, including the destruction of natural resources and ecosystems, cultural devastation, and glaring economic discrepancies." She adds that "new ideologies and coalitions established by the responsible tourism movement helped spawn environmental tourism in the early 1980s which led in turn to the birth of ecotourism." (Merlino 1993).

A booming ecotourism market does not necessarily prevent environmental degradation. Problems can arise when predictions concerning ecological and cultural carrying capacities are inaccurate, when there is insufficient involvement of local people in planning and establishing managed areas, or if the full range of current or prospective uses of an area are not considered in the planning process. Ecotourists are going to be more inclined to visit well-managed areas where species diversity is high, water quality is good, and the landscapes/seascapes are kept intact than an area where management failures are obvious.

Leaders in trade organizations of the tourism industry are recognizing that successful ecotourism will depend on the industry developing, adopting, and providing the information and educational materials necessary to implement codes of conduct and good practice. For example, the personal watercraft industry has begun distributing literature to watercraft dealers explaining ways to avoid offending other users and to help protect marine resources. Coastal resort hotels sometimes advise patrons on ways to avoid damaging the marine environment. The tourism industry has found that marine ecotourism programs can also function as educational tools. When properly presented by trained docents or guides, ecotourism can facilitate scientific and private understandings of natural processes.

The State and federal government are also taking measures to ensure that tourism and recreational activities minimally affect the ocean ecosystem. For instance, programs are in place to reduce the impacts of whale watching excursions, sightseeing, and kayaking. Tours of National Marine Sanctuaries, National Estuarine Research Reserves, and state reserves are specifically designed to maximize visitor enjoyment and education, while minimizing environmental impacts. Assistance from the public is also effective, with such programs as National Marine Sanctuary Docents and Jet Ski Ambassadors. The concept of ecotourism has been further promoted through a State recreation policy and code of ethics.

Californians clearly put a high value on the environment and outdoor recreation, as is consistently demonstrated in public opinion polls, the voting record on environmental initiatives, and in the amount of money spent by individuals on outdoor recreation. Well over 80 percent of Californians participate in some sort of outdoor recreational activity, many of which are ocean or coastal in nature (DPR 1992). However, the outdoor environment can be damaged by the collective actions of a few uninformed or careless individuals.

To help provide the public with a wide range of high-quality and sustainable recreational opportunities, the Legislature directed the California State Park and Recreation Commission to prepare a comprehensive recreational policy for the State of California (PRC Section 540). Completed and adopted in 1994, the California Recreation Policy is intended to guide all of California’s current and potential suppliers of recreation opportunities, such as federal, State and local governments, private industry, and the quasi-public or nonprofit sector. This policy is an important element in maintaining sustainable ocean and coastal tourism and recreation in California. The policy recognizes the many positive aspects of recreation, including creating personal and broad social benefits, protecting valuable natural and cultural resources, generating economic benefits through income and employment, and contributing to a substantial tourism market. The California Recreation Policy is included as Appendix J.

Another important element of sustainable ocean and coastal tourism and recreation is the concept of individual responsibility. A major portion of the cost to maintain parks, beaches and other recreation areas is to clean-up, repair and otherwise maintain lands and facilities that have been damaged or degraded. Strict and consistent enforcement of rules and regulations designed to protect the environment and recreational facilities can certainly help, but rangers and other law enforcement officers cannot be everywhere. The future of California’s ocean and coastal recreational resources must ultimately rest with the individual actions of all those who use them -- the public at large.

Recognizing that it is important to make clear the rights and responsibilities of people involved in recreation activities, the California Department of Parks and Recreation developed a set of general guidelines for proper recreational behavior titled, Outdoor Recreation Code of Ethics. The primary purpose of this Code of Ethics is to encourage enhancement and protection of outdoor recreation resources from uses that would degrade them in order to lower maintenance costs to recreation providers, protect and sustain the recreation and tourism industry, and ensure that the recreational needs of all California residents, current and future, can be met. However, the California Recreation Policy and Outdoor Recreation Code of Ethics must be actively promoted to influence the behavior of the public within California’s coastal parks and other natural areas.

Broad public support for ocean and coastal recreational resource management will come only to the degree that the public knows the facts, appreciates the values, and behaves in a manner that respects the integrity of natural and cultural resources. Education programs have been developed which not only help the environment, but also assist the public in understanding the importance of individual responsibility. Such programs include storm drain stenciling, CoastWeeks and Adopt-A-Beach (for a description of these and other ocean and coastal education programs, see the chapter titled, Education, Research and Technology). A continuing educational effort will be needed, and the Code of Ethics could serve as a foundation for developing additional programs. The Code of Ethics is included with the Recreation Policy in Appendix J.

California's ocean-dependent tourism and recreation industries have developed as a result of the State's international reputation for striking coastal features, clean ocean waters, spectacular views, diversity of marine species, and numerous ocean-based recreational opportunities. As human populations continue to expand, pressures on ocean and coastal resources will increase. California's ocean and coastal resources must serve the needs not only of Californians, but also visitors from around the world. Management strategies should help stimulate sustainable ocean and coastal tourism and recreation, but they must also address impacts to California's ocean ecosystem.